Fast Arc Cos algorithm?

I have my own, very fast cos function:

float sine(float x)
{
    const float B = 4/pi;
    const float C = -4/(pi*pi);

    float y = B * x + C * x * abs(x);

    //  const float Q = 0.775;
    const float P = 开发者_如何转开发0.225;

    y = P * (y * abs(y) - y) + y;   // Q * y + P * y * abs(y)


    return y;
}

float cosine(float x)
{
    return sine(x + (pi / 2));
}

But now when I profile, I see that acos() is killing the processor. I don't need intense precision. What is a fast way to calculate acos(x) Thanks.

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A simple cubic approximation, the Lagrange polynomial for x ∈ {-1, -½, 0, ½, 1}, is:

double acos(x) {
   return (-0.69813170079773212 * x * x - 0.87266462599716477) * x + 1.5707963267948966;
}

It has a maximum error of about 0.18 rad.

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Got spare memory? A lookup table (with interpolation, if required) is gonna be fastest.

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nVidia has some great resources that show how to approximate otherwise very expensive math functions, such as: acos asin atan2 etc etc...

These algorithms produce good results when speed of execution is more important (within reason) than precision. Here's their acos function:

// Absolute error <= 6.7e-5
float acos(float x) {
  float negate = float(x < 0);
  x = abs(x);
  float ret = -0.0187293;
  ret = ret * x;
  ret = ret + 0.0742610;
  ret = ret * x;
  ret = ret - 0.2121144;
  ret = ret * x;
  ret = ret + 1.5707288;
  ret = ret * sqrt(1.0-x);
  ret = ret - 2 * negate * ret;
  return negate * 3.14159265358979 + ret;
}

And here are the results for when calculating acos(0.5):

nVidia:   result: 1.0471513828611643
math.h:   result: 1.0471975511965976

That's pretty close! Depending on your required degree of precision, this might be a good option for you.

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I have my own. It's pretty accurate and sort of fast. It works off of a theorem I built around quartic convergence. It's really interesting, and you can see the equation and how fast it can make my natural log approximation converge here: https://www.desmos.com/calculator/yb04qt8jx4

Here's my arccos code:

function acos(x)
    local a=1.43+0.59*x a=(a+(2+2*x)/a)/2
    local b=1.65-1.41*x b=(b+(2-2*x)/b)/2
    local c=0.88-0.77*x c=(c+(2-a)/c)/2
    return (8*(c+(2-a)/c)-(b+(2-2*x)/b))/6
end

A lot of that is just square root approximation. It works really well, too, unless you get too close to taking a square root of 0. It has an average error (excluding x=0.99 to 1) of 0.0003. The problem, though, is that at 0.99 it starts going to shit, and at x=1, the difference in accuracy becomes 0.05. Of course, this could be solved by doing more iterations on the square roots (lol nope) or, just a little thing like, if x>0.99 then use a different set of square root linearizations, but that makes the code all long and ugly.

If you don't care about accuracy so much, you could just do one iteration per square root, which should still keep you somewhere in the range of 0.0162 or something as far as accuracy goes:

function acos(x)
    local a=1.43+0.59*x a=(a+(2+2*x)/a)/2
    local b=1.65-1.41*x b=(b+(2-2*x)/b)/2
    local c=0.88-0.77*x c=(c+(2-a)/c)/2
    return 8/3*c-b/3
end

If you're okay with it, you can use pre-existing square root code. It will get rid of the the equation going a bit crazy at x=1:

function acos(x)
    local a = math.sqrt(2+2*x)
    local b = math.sqrt(2-2*x)
    local c = math.sqrt(2-a)
    return 8/3*d-b/3
end

Frankly, though, if you're really pressed for time, remember that you could linearize arccos into 3.14159-1.57079x and just do:

function acos(x)
    return 1.57079-1.57079*x
end

Anyway, if you want to see a list of my arccos approximation equations, you can go to https://www.desmos.com/calculator/tcaty2sv8l I know that my approximations aren't the best for certain things, but if you're doing something where my approximations would be useful, please use them, but try to give me credit.

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You can approximate the inverse cosine with a polynomial as suggested by dan04, but a polynomial is a pretty bad approximation near -1 and 1 where the derivative of the inverse cosine goes to infinity. When you increase the degree of the polynomial you hit diminishing returns quickly, and it is still hard to get a good approximation around the endpoints. A rational function (the quotient of two polynomials) can give a much better approximation in this case.

acos(x) ≈ π/2 + (ax + bx³) / (1 + cx² + dx⁴)

where

a = -0.939115566365855
b =  0.9217841528914573
c = -1.2845906244690837
d =  0.295624144969963174

has a maximum absolute error of 0.017 radians (0.96 degrees) on the interval (-1, 1). Here is a plot (the inverse cosine in black, cubic polynomial approximation in red, the above function in blue) for comparison:

The coefficients above have been chosen to minimise the maximum absolute error over the entire domain. If you are willing to allow a larger error at the endpoints, the error on the interval (-0.98, 0.98) can be made much smaller. A numerator of degree 5 and a denominator of degree 2 is about as fast as the above function, but slightly less accurate. At the expense of performance you can increase accuracy by using higher degree polynomials.

A note about performance: computing the two polynomials is still very cheap, and you can use fused multiply-add instructions. The division is not so bad, because you can use the hardware reciprocal approximation and a multiply. The error in the reciprocal approximation is negligible in comparison with the error in the acos approximation. On a 2.6 GHz Skylake i7, this approximation can do about 8 inverse cosines every 6 cycles using AVX. (That is throughput, the latency is longer than 6 cycles.)

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Another approach you could take is to use complex numbers. From de Moivre's formula,

ⅈ^x = cos(π/2*x) + ⅈ*sin(π/2*x)

Let θ = π/2*x. Then x = 2θ/π, so

• sin(θ) = ℑ(ⅈ^^2θ/π)
• cos(θ) = ℜ(ⅈ^^2θ/π)

How can you calculate powers of ⅈ without sin and cos? Start with a precomputed table for powers of 2:

• ⅈ⁴ = 1
• ⅈ² = -1
• ⅈ¹ = ⅈ
• ⅈ^1/2 = 0.7071067811865476 + 0.7071067811865475*ⅈ
• ⅈ^1/4 = 0.9238795325112867 + 0.3826834323650898*ⅈ
• ⅈ^1/8 = 0.9807852804032304 + 0.19509032201612825*ⅈ
• ⅈ^1/16 = 0.9951847266721969 + 0.0980171403295606*ⅈ
• ⅈ^1/32 = 0.9987954562051724 + 0.049067674327418015*ⅈ
• ⅈ^1/64 = 0.9996988186962042 + 0.024541228522912288*ⅈ
• ⅈ^1/128 = 0.9999247018391445 + 0.012271538285719925*ⅈ
• ⅈ^1/256 = 0.9999811752826011 + 0.006135884649154475*ⅈ

To calculate arbitrary values of ⅈ^x, approximate the exponent as a binary fraction, and then multiply together the corresponding values from the table.

For example, to find sin and cos of 72° = 0.8π/2:

ⅈ^0.8 ≈ ⅈ^205/256 = ⅈ^0b11001101 = ⅈ^1/2 * ⅈ^1/4 * ⅈ^1/32 * ⅈ^1/64 * ⅈ^1/256
= 0.3078496400415349 + 0.9514350209690084*ⅈ

• sin(72°) ≈ 0.9514350209690084 ("exact" value is 0.9510565162951535)
• cos(72°) ≈ 0.3078496400415349 ("exact" value is 0.30901699437494745).

To find asin and acos, you can use this table with the Bisection Method:

For example, to find asin(0.6) (the smallest angle in a 3-4-5 triangle):

• ⅈ⁰ = 1 + 0*ⅈ. The sin is too small, so increase x by 1/2.
• ⅈ^1/2 = 0.7071067811865476 + 0.7071067811865475*ⅈ . The sin is too big, so decrease x by 1/4.
• ⅈ^1/4 = 0.9238795325112867 + 0.3826834323650898*ⅈ. The sin is too small, so increase x by 1/8.
• ⅈ^3/8 = 0.8314696123025452 + 0.5555702330196022*ⅈ. The sin is still too small, so increase x by 1/16.
• ⅈ^7/16 = 0.773010453362737 + 0.6343932841636455*ⅈ. The sin is too big, so decrease x by 1/32.
• ⅈ^13/32 = 0.8032075314806449 + 0.5956993044924334*ⅈ.

Each time you increase x, multiply by the corresponding power of ⅈ. Each time you decrease x, divide by the corresponding power of ⅈ.

If we stop here, we obtain acos(0.6) ≈ 13/32*π/2 = 0.6381360077604268 (The "exact" value is 0.6435011087932844.)

The accuracy, of course, depends on the number of iterations. For a quick-and-dirty approximation, use 10 iterations. For "intense precision", use 50-60 iterations.

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A fast arccosine implementation, accurate to about 0.5 degrees, can be based on the observation that for x in [0,1], acos(x) ≈ √(2*(1-x)). An additional scale factor improves accuracy near zero. The optimal factor can be found by a simple binary search. Negative arguments are handled according to acos (-x) = π - acos (x).

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdint.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <math.h>

// Approximate acos(a) with relative error < 5.15e-3
// This uses an idea from Robert Harley's posting in comp.arch.arithmetic on 1996/07/12
// https://groups.google.com/forum/#!original/comp.arch.arithmetic/wqCPkCCXqWs/T9qCkHtGE2YJ
float fast_acos (float a)
{
    const float PI = 3.14159265f;
    const float C  = 0.10501094f;
    float r, s, t, u;
    t = (a < 0) ? (-a) : a;  // handle negative arguments
    u = 1.0f - t;
    s = sqrtf (u + u);
    r = C * u * s + s;  // or fmaf (C * u, s, s) if FMA support in hardware
    if (a < 0) r = PI - r;  // handle negative arguments
    return r;
}

float uint_as_float (uint32_t a)
{
    float r;
    memcpy (&r, &a, sizeof(r));
    return r;
}

int main (void)
{
    double maxrelerr = 0.0;
    uint32_t a = 0;
    do {
        float x = uint_as_float (a);
        float r = fast_acos (x);
        double xx = (double)x;
        double res = (double)r;
        double ref = acos (xx);
        double relerr = (res - ref) / ref;
        if (fabs (relerr) > maxrelerr) {
            maxrelerr = fabs (relerr);
            printf ("xx=% 15.8e  res=% 15.8e  ref=% 15.8e  rel.err=% 15.8e\n",
                    xx, res, ref, relerr);
        }
        a++;
    } while (a);
    printf ("maximum relative error = %15.8e\n", maxrelerr);
    return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}

The output of the above test scaffold should look similar to this:

xx= 0.00000000e+000  res= 1.56272149e+000  ref= 1.57079633e+000  rel.err=-5.14060021e-003
xx= 2.98023259e-008  res= 1.56272137e+000  ref= 1.57079630e+000  rel.err=-5.14065723e-003
xx= 8.94069672e-008  res= 1.56272125e+000  ref= 1.57079624e+000  rel.err=-5.14069537e-003
xx=-2.98023259e-008  res= 1.57887137e+000  ref= 1.57079636e+000  rel.err= 5.14071269e-003
xx=-8.94069672e-008  res= 1.57887149e+000  ref= 1.57079642e+000  rel.err= 5.14075044e-003
maximum relative error = 5.14075044e-003

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Here is a great website with many options: https://www.ecse.rpi.edu/Homepages/wrf/Research/Short_Notes/arcsin/onlyelem.html

Personally I went the Chebyshev-Pade quotient approximation with with the following code:

double arccos(double x) {
const double pi = 3.141592653;
    return pi / 2 - (.5689111419 - .2644381021*x - .4212611542*(2*x - 1)*(2*x - 1)
         + .1475622352*(2*x - 1)*(2*x - 1)*(2*x - 1))
         / (2.006022274 - 2.343685222*x + .3316406750*(2*x - 1)*(2*x - 1) +
             .02607135626*(2*x - 1)*(2*x - 1)*(2*x - 1));
}

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If you're using Microsoft VC++, here's an inline __asm x87 FPU code version without all the CRT filler, error checks, etc. and unlike the earliest classic ASM code you can find, it uses a FMUL instead of the slower FDIV. It compiles/works with Microsoft VC++ 2005 Express/Pro what I always stick with for various reasons.

It's a little tricky to setup a function with "__declspec(naked)/__fastcall", pull parameters correctly, handle stack, so not for the faint of heart. If it fails to compile with errors on your version, don't bother unless you're experienced. Or ask me, I can rewrite it in a slightly friendlier __asm{} block. I would manually inline this if it's a critical part of a function in a loop for further performance gains if need be.

extern float __fastcall fs_acos(float x);
extern double __fastcall fs_Acos(double x);

// ACOS(x)- Computes the arccosine of ST(0)
// Allowable range: -1<=x<=+1
// Derivative Formulas: acos(x) = atan(sqrt((1 - x * x)/(x * x))) OR
// acos(x) = atan2(sqrt(1 - x * x), x)
// e.g. acos(-1.0) = 3.1415927

__declspec(naked) float __fastcall fs_acos(float x) { __asm {
    FLD   DWORD PTR [ESP+4] ;// Load/Push parameter 'x' to FPU stack
    FLD1            ;// Load 1.0
    FADD  ST, ST(1) ;// Compute 1.0 + 'x'
    FLD1            ;// Load 1.0
    FSUB  ST, ST(2) ;// Compute 1.0 - 'x'
    FMULP ST(1), ST ;// Compute (1-x) * (1+x)
    FSQRT           ;// Compute sqrt(result)
    FXCH  ST(1)
    FPATAN          ;// Compute arctangent of result / 'x' (ST1/ST0)
    RET 4
}}

__declspec(naked) double __fastcall fs_Acos(double x) { __asm { //
    FLD   QWORD PTR [ESP+4] ;// Load/Push parameter 'x' to FPU stack
    FLD1            ;// Load 1.0
    FADD  ST, ST(1) ;// Compute (1.0 + 'x')
    FLD1            ;// Load 1.0
    FSUB  ST, ST(2) ;// Compute (1.0 - 'x')
    FMULP ST(1), ST ;// Compute (1-x) * (1+x)
    FSQRT           ;// Compute sqrt((1-x) * (1+x))
    FXCH  ST(1) 
    FPATAN          ;// Compute arctangent of result / 'x' (ST1/ST0)
    RET 8
}}

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Unfortunately I do not have enough reputation to comment. Here is a small modification of Nvidia's function, that deals with the fact that numbers that should be <= 1 while preserving performance as much as possible.

It may be important since rounding errors can lead number that should be 1.0 to be (oh so slightly) larger than 1.0.

double safer_acos(double x) {
  double negate = double(x < 0);
  x = abs(x);
  x -= double(x>1.0)*(x-1.0); // <- equivalent to min(1.0,x), but faster
  double ret = -0.0187293;
  ret = ret * x;
  ret = ret + 0.0742610;
  ret = ret * x;
  ret = ret - 0.2121144;
  ret = ret * x;
  ret = ret + 1.5707288;
  ret = ret * sqrt(1.0-x);
  ret = ret - 2 * negate * ret;
  return negate * 3.14159265358979 + ret;

  // In a single line (no gain using gcc)
  //return negate * 3.14159265358979 + (((((-0.0187293*x)+ 0.0742610)*x - 0.2121144)*x + 1.5707288)* sqrt(1.0-x))*(1.0-2.0*negate);

}